SOMA 2012 Identity and Connectivity Proceedings of the 16th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology, Florence, Italy, 1–3 March 2012 VOLUME II Edited by Luca Bombardieri, Anacleto D’Agostino, Guido Guarducci, Valentina Orsi and Stefano Valentini BAR International Series 2581 (II) 2013 Published by Archaeopress Publishers of Briish Archaeological Reports Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED England bar@archaeopress.com www.archaeopress.com BAR S2581 (II) SOMA 2012. Idenity and Connecivity: Proceedings of the 16th Symposium on Mediterranean Archaeology, Florence, Italy, 1–3 March 2012. Volume 2 © Archaeopress and the individual authors 2013 ISBN 978 1 4073 1205 7 (this volume) ISBN 978 1 4073 1204 0 (volume I) ISBN 978 1 4073 1206 4 (set of both volumes) Printed in England by Informaion Press, Oxford All BAR itles are available from: Hadrian Books Ltd 122 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7BP England www.hadrianbooks.co.uk The current BAR catalogue with details of all itles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books or may be downloaded from www.archaeopress.com A Classification of Clay Drums from al-Andalus (9th-14th Centuries AD) Alexandra Bill*, Raquel Jiménez Pasalodos**, Carlos García Benito *** (*Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne; **Universidad de Valladolid; ***Universidad de Zaragoza ) Abstract In this paper, we will propose a classification of alAndalus clay drums (9th-14th Centuries AD) as a first approach for a music archaeological study of this important amount of findings. These drums, which appear all over the territories that were under Muslim rule during the Middle Ages, mirroring al-Andalus’ archaeological map, constitute a very special corpus. The number of findings suggests that these instruments were produced on a relatively large scale in al-Andalus. Nevertheless, they disappear from the archaeological record after the Reconquista, which suggests that their occurrence was closely linked with the al-Andalus’ culture. However, archaeological literature tends to ignore them. Through this study, we would like to draw archaeologists’ attention to the important presence of drums in Andalusian archaeological contexts while proposing possibilities for their classification, based on a typological and taxonomical study. Keywords clay drums, music archaeology, al-Andalus, classification Al-Andalus, the part of the medieval Iberian Peninsula that was under Muslim rule, from 711 AD to 1492 AD, was sung for its cultural splendor by poets and historians of the time (Figure 1). They particularly described the rich intellectual life that took place under the Umayyad dynasty, the importance of their private libraries, the poets they protected and the beauty and skills of the singing-slaves they owned. Later, during the 11th century AD, when al-Andalus was divided in small independent states called Taifas, they enlighten us about the feasts that took place at the courts of the different Taifas sovereigns. At that time, music and art were a way to show the rulers’ wealth and power. They took an important part in the competition between the various Taifas and having the most famous musicians and singers was a proof of success as well as a political statement. Even if the context changed with the later dynasties from the Maghreb, the Almoravids and the Almohads, literary sources notice the taste of people from al-Andalus for music and art, contrasting with their new rulers. As for the last remnant of al-Andalus towards the end of the Middle Ages, the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, its art, its music and its poetry were admired and copied in contemporary Christian courts. The name of the Alhambra alone still evokes nowadays a life of refinement. If music seemed to have played an important role in alAndalus according to written sources, it is very interesting to notice that there was absolutely no sign of it in the archaeological record until a few decades ago. The discovery of a curious item that could be classified neither as a jar nor as a dish, in the materials from the Andalusian shipwreck of the Batéguier, found lying in the waters of the French Mediterranean in the Southern end of the bay of Cannes in 1973, was a significant change for musicologists. Georges Vindry, the archaeologist who published the results of the survey, immediately identified it as a clay drum because of its similarity to the modern Maghrebian darbuka (1980, 221-222). It was one of the first findings, if not the first, of a musical instrument from al-Andalus (Figure 2.2). Almost 40 years later, medieval clay drums are considerably the most abundant organological archaeological findings in the Iberian Peninsula. So far, we have identified 65 complete or almost complete drums and more than a hundred fragments of other drums. They constitute a remarkable corpus of archaeological musical instruments, which must be understood as unique for several reasons. First of all, clay drums are not only abundant, they are also the only identifiable remnants of the music that was played in al-Andalus, if we lay aside numerous clay whistles and the uncertain identification of bone flutes. Even if clay whistles are sonorous artefacts, they did not seem to be perceived and used as musical instruments by the people of al-Andalus, since they never appear in the lists of musical instruments that can be found in musical (e.g. Farmer 1935) or juridical treatises (e.g. García Gómez 1957, 283–287). As for the artefacts that are listed as bone flutes by archaeologists and museums, a rapid survey is enough to find out that most of them cannot be acoustically functional, as it was already remarked by Moreno García, Pimenta and Gros (2005, 333–341). Moreover, no string instruments have been identified during excavations in the Iberian Peninsula, since these instruments are always built with wood or other organic materials. Nevertheless, it has been proposed that some of the bones with holes are in fact lute necks that would eventually explain the orifices (Moreno García, Pimenta and Gros 2005, 340). Consequently, clay drums are the only unquestionable archaeological link with the music of al-Andalus, and probably, are closely related with the cultural behaviors of al-Andalus’ populations. Indeed, these instruments slowly disappeared from the Northern regions with the progression of the Christians before completely vanishing from the archaeological record after the 14th century. Clay drums can therefore be considered as a unique corpus, essential for the study of al-Andalus’ musical traditions. Moreover, since music is an essential part of culture, a better understanding of musical behaviours through the interpretation of musical instruments can unveil many symbolic and cultural aspects that would be impossible to detect through other types of material 1097 culture. Nevertheless, there has not been enough attention paid to these instruments in archaeological literature. A rapid survey of the literature addressing this question confronts us with several problems. First of all, clay drums are not always identified in excavation reports or inventories. For instance, the drums from Benetússer (Figures 2.22, 2.23 and 2.24) were not identified as drums in the first report (Escribà 1987, 314), and therefore, the correct identification did not arrive until some years later (Escribà and Barceló 1990, 65). Besides, the lack of typological studies of these clay drums makes the correct identification especially difficult when dealing with fragmentary remains. As an example of this problem we can mention the confusion of a drum’s foot with a type of aquamanile or water jug (Bienes Calvo 1987, 124, figure 16). The other main issue is that, even when archaeologists have recognized the materials as possible drums, the information is scattered in museums’ catalogues and excavations reports. Clay drums have never been studied in comprehensive works that would value these instruments as a singular production of al-Andalus’ pottery, and would permit the understanding of the findings in a larger frame. Moreover, the few works that have aimed to provide a musicological interpretation have used a very limited amount of findings. The first article form Álvarez Martínez and Rosselló Bordoy (1989) only took into account the three drums known at the time: the one discovered in the Batéguier shipwreck (Figure 2.2), one from Benetússer (Figure 2.24) and the one from the Castillejo de Los Guájares (Figure 2.12). A few years later, Rosselló Bordoy added four new drums to his study (1996), two fragments discovered in Malaga’s Roman theater1 and two larger pieces found in emergency excavations in Palma de Mallorca, that are unluckily lost in the Mallorca Archaeological Museum. Despite counting with a humble amount of findings, he tried to make a first typological approach that divided the drums into goblet drums and hourglass drums, coinciding with two types of membranophones that appear in the classification of musical instruments made by Sachs and Hornbostel in 1914, the most used system for classifying musical instruments.2 This typology, despite being very interesting, does not work when put into practice with a larger survey of materials, as only two of 35 identifiable drums can be considered as slightly hourglass shaped (Calle Salas, Figure 2.5 and Castillejo de los Guájares, Figure 2.12). Moreover, these clay drums do not look like the instruments organologically considered as hourglass drums, which are completely symmetrical. In our opinion, the drum of Calle Salas and the drum of the Castillejo de los Guájares are also goblet drums with a conical base, that tends to the hourglass shape, but that 1 There is in fact only one drum fragment from Malaga’s Roman theater. The two mentioned by Rosselló Bordoy derive from a clear identification mistake as the drawings can easily show us (1996, 29, 36 and 37). In Acién Almansa, who studied Malaga’s Roman theater pottery, the two pieces reproduced by G. Rosselló Bordoy are presented by the former as fragments of containers (1988, 234, n°115 and 116) andanother fragment is presented as a drum (1988, 230, n°68). 2 Types 211.26 (goblet-drums) and 211.24 (hourglass drums) of Sachs and Hornbostel classification. cannot be classified as a different type of membranophone. Consequently, in this paper, we aim at filling in a gap in archaeological literature by presenting and analysing a larger corpus of al-Andalus clay drums, which we have identified in literature and in museums. This first preliminary archaeological and organological survey seeks to establish a typological classification of clay drums from al-Andalus. We expect that this article will draw archaeologists’ attention to these musical instruments and will help them to identify them during excavations or inventorying processes. Nevertheless, our goal is also to provide a reasonable frame that will allow a historical and musicological interpretation of the findings, by the means of a music archaeological approach. Music Archaeology is a discipline that is focused on the knowledge of past musical behaviours through the study of archaeological instruments, but also counts with an important amount of interdisciplinary methodological approaches that includes written sources, music iconographies, ethno-archaeological analogies, archaeoacustic studies, and the construction of replicas through experimental archaeology (García Benito and Jiménez Pasalodos, 2011). This classification pretends then to be the starting point of a wider interpretative study of these medieval instruments. First of all, our typology is based on a functional taxonomy, as these findings have been used as musical instruments (Balfet 1989). The presence of a cup and a base, and the fact that the artefact is open at both ends, are the main indication of the materials being remains of membranophones, as they would not be functional as vessels. Moreover, some of the pieces show a construction that seems to facilitate the addition of a stretched skin (Figures 6.A and 8.B). The neck-like narrowing of the base in the contact with the cup, showed by some of the findings, was probably made to facilitate the holding of the drums with one hand, as they are too small to be played under the arm or between the legs, since the body contact would interrupt the vibrations of the sound box. Taking these features into account, we have identified all the objects as single headed goblet clay drums. In order to recognize the small fragments, we consider that we need at least to be able to distinguish the cup shape of the goblet or the shape of the base, such as the examples of Tudela (Bienes Calvo 1987, 124, figure 16) or Can Oms in Palma de Mallorca (Rosselló Bordoy 1996, 29, 36 and 38). In Figure 2, we have included all the drums we have identified in literature and museums. However, the drums from Calatalifa are just based on a single bibliographic reference and we have been unable to verify their existence (Cortés García 1990, 309). The last six numbers are only indicating the existence of an important amount of fragments that still need to be studied, in order to calculate the amount of drums that they represent. However, these drums show very different shapes and sizes. Consequently, in order to facilitate their study, we propose an analytical typology based on the shapes of the cups and the bases. In this first intent of classification, we have used the 24 examples that 1098 preserve at least part of the cup and the base.3 Considering the shape of the cups and the bases as a starting point, we have divided the findings into two types, Type A, drums with hemispheric cups, and Type B, drums with conic-frustum cup. The sub-classification will take into account the shape of the bases (cylindrical, conical or fusiform). Type A. Hemispheric cup Type A.1. Hemispheric cup and conical base - 2 drums from Teatro Romano de Caesaraugusta, 11th century, (Figure 2.25 and 2.26) - 3 drums from Benetússer, 10th-11th centuries (Figures 2.21, 2.22, 2.23) - 2 drums from Madrid, 10th-11th centuries (Figures 2.3 and 2.4) - Capuchinos, 11th century (Figure 2.9) Type A.2. Hemispheric cup and cylindrical base - Balaguer, 11th century (Figure 2.19) - Orihuela (Figure 2.17) Type A.3. Hemispheric cup and fusiform base. - Teatro Romano de Caesaraugusta, 11th century (Figure 2.30) - Iglesia de San Martín, 12th century (Figure 2.15) Type B. Conic-frustum cup Type B.1. Conic-frustum cup and conical base - Petrer, 10th-11th centuries (Figure 2.20 and 8B) - Alcoutim, 10th-11th centuries (Figure 2.11) - Castillejo de los Guájares, 13th-14th centuries (Figure 2.12 and 8A) Type B.2. Conic-frustum cup and cylindrical base - Torrevieja, 9th century (Figure 2.36) - Plaza Belén, 10th century (Figures 2.21 and 5A) - 3 drums from the Teatro Romano de Caesaraugusta, 11th century, (Figures 2.27, 2.28 and 2.29) - Estacada de Alfaro, 12th-13th centuries (Figure 2.14 and 6B) Type B.3. Conic-frustum cup and fusiform base. - Silves, 8th century (?) (Figure 2.10) - Batéguier, 10th century (Figure 2.2) - Salas, 12th-13th centuries (Figures 2.5 and 6B) The Type A represents 50% of the studied drums. The biggest amount of findings corresponds to Type A.1, with hemispheric cup and conical base. This typology embodies 33% of the pieces included, and except for one remain, the drum of the Iglesia de San Martín (Figure 2.15, Giralt i Balagueró, 1991), from the beginning of the 12th century, they are all dated from the 10th and 11th centuries. The two drums from Madrid seem also to be from Type A.1, but we have not located the finding and our classification is based on the published drawings (Caballero et all. 1985 and Retuerce, 1987) Nevertheless, it is important to take into account the archaeological contexts of Benetússer drums (Figures 2.22, 2.23 and 2.24, Escribà, F. and Barceló, 1990) and the ones from Calle San Pablo. The Benetússer drums were found in a garbage dump probably from a potter’s workshop (Escribà 1987, 315), so the big amount of Type A.1 drums could be explained by the contextualization of the findings. The Type A.2 example (hemispherical cup and cylindrical base) has been considered as a separate type from Type A.1. The base seems to be cylindrical, and does not present a widening that would indicate a conical form. Nevertheless, as the base is broken before the end, it could have been a Type A.1 drum that assumed a conical shape in the ending part. This drum is also very characteristic, as it has a very pronounced border between the cup and the base, which slightly deforms the hemispheric shape, and probably was made to help the adjustment of the skin. It is dated to the Califal period.4 The Type A.3 only represents the 8,3% of the drums studied. All the Type A.3 drums date between the 10th to the 12th century, when the Northern lands where still part of al-Andalus’ territory. Type A drums include the smallest examples of Al-Andalus clay drums, between 7,9cm and 12,6cm, with the exception of a drum from Caesaraugusta (Figure 2.26). But the small size of some of the findings does not mean we are not dealing with functional musical instruments. For instance, the Moroccan ta’arijas, single headed goblet clay drums that are the closest ethnographic parallel for al-Andalus’ mempranophones, can measure as little as 8cms. Finally, Type B, 50% of the drums considered, consists of drums with a conic-frustum cup. They are in general bigger than Type A drums. The Type B drums also have a larger time span and geographical distribution. The Type B.1 is represented by three examples, which are the ones that have a certain hourglass shape. The examples are completely different chronologically and geographically, but share a delicate manufacture and a considerably important size. Petrer drum (Figure 2.20, Navarro Poveda, 1988 and 1990 and Figure 8B), dated to the Califal period, has a beautiful red painted geometrical decoration, a characteristic shared only by the Silves drum, and it is 29cm long. The drum of the Castillejo de los Guájares (Figure 2.12, García Porras, 2001 and Figure 8A), the later example (from the 13th to the middle of the 14th century), is of a remarkably high quality manufacture. It measures 32cm (the longest drum of the pieces studied) and shows an Arabic inscription and mouldings. We believe that the base fragments of Almería (Figure 2.1, Duda 1970) and of Málaga (Figure 2.35, Acién Almansa 1987) belonged to drums very similar to the one of Castillejo de los Guájares. Finally, the drum of Alcoutim (Figure 2.11, Catarino 1998) probably surpassed 25cm, as it has a large maximum diameter (14cm). Type B.2 can also be a subtype of Type B.1, as again only one of the bases is complete. Three of them have an 4 3 There are also 30 almost complete drums from the excavation of Calle San Pablo (Zaragoza) and a large amount of fragments. Although we have seen them, we have to wait for their publication in order to get the permission to make a detailed study of the materials. We also have included of a clay drum in the Museo Arqueológico Comarcal de Orihuela, Alicante, which comes from an excavation of the Palacio de Pinohermoso made in 1987. Apparently, the drum belongs also to Type A.2. However, we ignore its chronology and, as we have not seen it so far, we prefer not to draw conclusions based on this finding. 1099 important length in comparison with the drums of Type A (the smaller examples of Type B.2 are from Cesaraugusta, and even if they present a cup which is more conic-frustum than hemispherical, they are very similar to the other small Cesaraugusta drums). Their time span is also larger than the Type A drums (9th-12th centuries). Type B.3 is represented by three very particular findings. The Silves drum (Figure 2.10, Varela Gomes, 2001), is 22cm long and shows a delicate geometrical decoration in red. It is dated to the 8th century, although its chronology is uncertain. The drum of Batéguier (Figure 2.2, Vindry, 1980), certainly dated to the 10th century, is the closest parallel to the Silves one, although the fusiform base is more pronounced. It also measures 23,6cm long and it is decorated with a pink slip all over the surface. Finally, the drum of Calle Salas, has a later chronology (12th-13th centuries). Even if it also has a fusiform base, its body is thinner than the other two, and it is shorter (15cm). If we consider isolated bases, we see that three drums (Can Oms, Figure 2.8, Riera Frau, 1993, Cerro de Santa Barbara, Figure 2.13, Bienes Calvo, 1987 and Sagunto, Figure 2.16) belong to the cylindrical base type and two to the conical base. In the case of the cylindrical bases, it is also interesting that again, the southern examples (Figures 2.8 and 2.16) are longer than the one from Tudela (Figure 2.8), which follows the Type A-Type B pattern. Finally, the two recognized fragments of isolated cups belong to Type A and Type B (Torrevieja, Figures 2.36, Gutiérrez López 2002 and Plaza de la Independencia, 2.18, Gutiérrez González, 2006). Conclusions Despite the wide distribution of the findings and their large time span, we have not found any evolution in the typologies. We would need to have enough remains of a particular location covering more centuries in order to permit us to establish evolutionary patterns. Nevertheless, we can conclude that drums of Type A are characteristic from the 10th and 11th centuries, with the exception of the Iglesia de San Martín drum, dated from the first half of the 12th century. In general, except one drum from Cesaraugusta (Figures 2.26 and 7), they do not surpass 12,5cm and have never been identified in the Southern territories of al-Andalus. This is interesting, as we have to remember that, with the exception of Benetússer, all the locations of Type A drums come from territories that were no longer under Islamic rulers after the end of the 11th century, consequently, it seems that the instruments disappear with the Christian rulers. The Type B drums, with conic-frustum cups, exceed the 20cm length (it would probably also be the case for the Calle Salas and Plaza Belen drums -Figures 2.5 and 2.21- if their bases were complete), with the exception of the two Zaragoza drums that belong to the same context and chronology than the hemispherical cup drums of Type A.1. The Type B has a longer chronological presence, as its time span covers all of al-Andalus’ history (8/9th-14th centuries). Again, the presence of the drums is closely linked with the presence Andalusian Islamic traditions in a territory. The sudden disappearance of a musical instrument with the arrival of Christian rulers is very significant. Contrary to some other musical instruments that found their place in the Christian world, such as the rabāb and būq, they do not appear in the ethnographic traditions of the Iberian Peninsula. These facts are probably indicating that the drums may have played a significant role in Andalusian musical culture, probably linked with popular traditions. We may be dealing with an identitarian element of Andalusian musical behaviours that, for this identity, was not incorporated in Christian musical traditions. For this reason, clay drums findings will require a deeper approach that takes into account written sources and iconography from al-Andalus, as well as the use of ethnoarchaeology to propose contemporary analogies that may give us more information about the mentalities and behaviours linked with the materials. Finally, the creation of replicas through experimental archaeology would be essential in order to understand the productive process of the drums and their acoustic properties. 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